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FATTY LIVER (HEPATIC STEATOSIS) INTRODUCTION Fatty liver is also known as hepatic steatosis. It happens when fat builds up in the liver. Having small amounts of fat in your liver is normal, but too much can become a health problem. Your liver is the second largest organ in your body. It helps process nutrients from food and drinks and filters harmful substances from your blood. Too much fat in your liver can cause liver inflammation, which can damage your liver and create scarring. In severe cases, this scarring can lead to liver failure. When fatty liver develops in someone who drinks a lot of alcohol, it’s known as alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD). In someone who doesn’t drink a lot of alcohol, it’s known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). According to researchers in the World Journal of Gastroenterology, NAFLD affects up to 25 to 30 percent of people in the United States and Europe. Symptoms of fatty liver In many cases, fatty liver causes no noticeable symptoms. But

 YEAST INFECTION INTRODUCTION What Are Vaginal Yeast Infections? They’re itchy and uncomfortable, and no one really likes to talk about them. But vaginal yeast infections are very common in women. It’s estimated that 75% of women will have at least one yeast infection in their lifetime. You need to know that yeast infections can happen to anyone at any time, there are certain things that make getting them more likely. Most infections can be cleared up quickly and easily.The vagina normally contains a healthy balance of bacteria and yeast.  The hormone estrogen helps bacteria called lactobacilli to grow. These bacteria kill harmful organisms in the vagina and keep you healthy. But when something happens to tip that balance, a fungus called candida can grow out of control and cause a yeast infection. Causes of Vaginal Yeast infections There are many reasons you could get a yeast infection, including: Hormones: Changes during pregnancy, breast-feeding or menopause (or if you’re taking bir

 MEDICAL ABBREVIATION Medical Abbreviations Rx = Prescription Hx = History Dx = Diagnosis Aq = Every qd = Every day qod = Every other day qh = Every Hour S = without SS = One & half C = With SOS = If needed AC = Before Meals PC = After meals BID = Twice a Day TID = Thrice a Day QID = Four times a day OD = Once a Day BT = Bed Time hs = Bed Time BBF = Before Breakfast BD = Before Dinner Tw = Twice a week SQ = sub cutaneous IM = Intramuscular ID = Intradermal IV = Intravenous Q4H = (every 4 hours) QOD = (every other day)HS = (at bedtime) PRN = (as needed) PO or "per os" (by mouth) Mg = (milligrams) Mcg/ug = (micrograms) G or Gm  = (grams) 1TSF( = 5 ml 1 Tablespoonful =15ml DDx =differential Diagnosis  RTx =Radiotherapy  CTx =Chemotherapy R/O =rule out  s.p =status post PMH(x) =post medical history Px =Prognosis  Ix =Indication  CIx =contraindication  Bx =biopsy Cx =complication

 Sacrococcygeal Teratoma Introduction Sacrococcygeal teratoma (SCT) is a rare tumor that forms at the base of a baby’s tailbone or other parts of the body. SCT develops from the same type of cells that form the reproductive tissues. When these cells develop abnormally, a tumor can result.  This birth defect is more common in girls than in males. Although the tumors can grow very large, they are usually not malignant (cancerous). They can usually be cured with surgery after birth, but occasionally cause trouble before birth. How Is SCT Diagnosed During Pregnancy? A  can be detected through a routine ultrasound in the second trimester. It will appear as a mass near the bottom of the back. A screening blood test may detect abnormally high levels of maternal alpha-fetoprotein, which can also alert your physician that a SCT may be present. After the initial ultrasound or blood test,  doctors or medical officers in teaching hospitals will perform an in-depth evaluation to determine the exte

 Breast lump Introduction  Brest Lump is a growth of tissue that develops within the breast. Breast lumps can have causes that aren't due to underlying disease. Examples include scars, fibroadenomas (benign fibrous growths), lipomas (benign fatty growths), cysts or overgrowth of ducts. The lumps are milk ducts and tissues around them that have grown and widened to form cysts. These enlarge quickly in response to hormones released near your period. The lumps may be hard or rubbery and could feel like a single (large or small) lump. Fibrocystic changes can also cause breast tissue to thicken. These changes are often most noticeable during your 40s. They’re the most common cause of benign breast lumps in women ages 35 to 50. Postmenopausal women are less likely to have these types of breast changes. That’s because they don’t have monthly changes in hormones. Simple cysts : Simple cysts are fluid-filled sacs that usually affect both breasts. You could have one or many. They can vary i

 ARTEMETHER-LUMEFANTRINE (COARTEM ®)  Pharmacology and Metabolism Artemether and lumefantrine combination therapy is indicated for the treatment of acute uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, including malaria acquired in chloroquine-resistant areas. May also be used to treat uncomplicated malaria when the Plasmodium species has not been identified. Indicated for use in adults and children greater than 5 kg. Coartem can cause anaphylactic reactions. The drug frequently causes headache, dizziness and anorexia, although mild forms in most cases. Other fairly common side effects (more than 3% of patients) include sleep disorder, tinnitus, tremor, palpitation, as well as unspecific reactions like vertigo, gastrointestinal disorders, itch and nasopharyngitis. Mechanism of action Involves an interaction with ferriprotoporphyrin IX (“heme”), or ferrous ions, in the acidic parasite food vacuole, which results in the generation of cytotoxic radical species. The generally accept

 Pharmacology Introduction Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. Pharmacology research is also a critical component in the development of modern 'personalized medicine'. There are many sub-specialties within the general discipline of pharmacology. Pharmacodynamics is the study of the effects of drugs on biological systems and specifically addresses the chemical properties and physiological and behavioral effects of drugs arising from their interaction with molecular targets such as receptor proteins or enzyme systems. In contrast, pharmacokinetics is the study of what biological systems do to the drug and encompasses investigations of drug absorption, distribution, biotransformation and excretion, essential information for the design

 SURGICAL AND INJECTION ADMINISTRATING VIDEO Craniopagus twins are conjoined twins that are fused at any part of the skull, except the face, foramen magnum, skull base and the vertebral column. The fused structures are most often the cranium, meninges, and dural venous sinuses. Brains tend to be separate; however, they may be connected by a bridge of neural tissue. The trunks and limbs are separate. Exclusive extracranial tissues involvement needs no significant imaging evaluation; however, a CT is needed to study the osseous detail if vault fusion is present. MRI is required to study the degree of brain involvement and MR arteriogram and MR venogram are required to evaluate the status of the cerebral circulation and venous sinuses.   Equipment Needles – one of which should be a safety-engineered device; Syringe Drug for administration; Medicines administration chart/prescription; Receiver or tray to carry the drug; Sharps container. Procedure Explain the procedure and gain consent. Sc

TYPHOID FEVER INTRODUCTION Typhoid fever is caused by certain types of the gram-negative bacteria Salmonella typhii. It typically causes a high fever and abdominal pain. Typhoid fever can be spread by consuming food or water contaminated with the stool or urine of an infected person. People have flu-like symptoms, sometimes followed by delirium, cough, exhaustion, occasionally rash, and diarrhea. Samples of blood, stool, other body fluids, or tissues are sent to a laboratory to grow (culture) the bacteria. To prevent infection, people traveling to areas where typhoid fever is common should be vaccinated and, when there, should avoid certain foods and not drink unbottled water. Infected people with or without symptoms are treated with antibiotics. Typhoid fever is one type of infection caused by Salmonella bacteria. There are many types of Salmonella, but most typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella Typhi. Typhoid fever is common in developing countries (especially in southern Asia) where

  METRONIDAZOLE INTRODUCTION AND CHEMISTRY Metronidazole, an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication. It is used either alone or with other antibiotics to treat pelvic inflammatory disease, endocarditis, and bacterial vaginosis. It is effective for dracunculiasis, giardiasis, trichomoniasis, and amebiasis.  Formula: C6H9N3O3 Molar mass: 171.16 g/mol CAS ID: 443-48-1 PubChem CID: 4173 Adult and Pediatric Dosage Forms and Strengths Capsule 375mg Tablet 250 mg 500 mg Tablet, extended-release 750 mg Infusion solution 500 mg/100mL What Are Side Effects Associated with Using Metronidazole? Common Side effects of Metronidazole include: Appetite loss Yeast infection (candidiasis) Diarrhea Dizziness Headache Nausea Vomiting Loss of control of bodily movements Dark urine Disulfiram-type reaction with ethanol Furry tongue Hypersensitivity Low white blood cell count (neutropenia) Metallic taste Neuropathy Pancreatitis Seizures Blood clot (thrombophlebitis) Dry mouth Brain disease (encephalopathy)

Respiratory Physiology Mechanics of Breathing The processes of inspiration (breathing in) and expiration (breathing out) are vital for providing oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide from the body. Inspiration occurs via active contraction of muscles – such as the diaphragm – whereas expiration tends to be passive, unless it is forced. Now, let's look at the physiology of ventilation – the process of inspiration and expiration, how this differs between quiet and forced breathing. The Lungs and Breathing The space between the outer surface of the lungs and inner thoracic wall is known as the pleural space. This is usually filled with pleural fluid, forming a seal which holds the lungs against the thoracic wall by the force of surface tension. This seal ensures that when the thoracic cavity expands or reduces, the lungs undergo expansion or reduction in size accordingly. During breathing, the contraction and relaxation of muscles acts to change the volume of the thoracic cavi

 What is blood pressure? Blood pressure is the pressure of blood pushing against the walls of your arteries. Arteries carry blood from your heart to other parts of your body. Your blood pressure normally rises and falls throughout the day. It also increases during exercise or during house work. What do blood pressure numbers mean? Blood pressure is measured using two numbers: the first number, called systolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart beats. The second number, called diastolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart rests between beats. If the measurement reads 120 systolic and 80 diastolic, you would say, “120 over 80,” or write, “120/80 mmHg.” HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE High blood pressure (hypertension) is a common condition in which the long-term force of the blood against your artery walls is high enough that it may eventually cause health problems, such as heart disease. Blood pressure is determined both by the

What is Piroxicam? Piroxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug of the oxicam class used to relieve the symptoms of painful inflammatory conditions like arthritis. Piroxicam works by preventing the production of endogenous prostaglandins which are involved in the mediation of pain, stiffness, tenderness and swelling.  Molar mass: 331.348 g/mol Formula: C15H13N3O4S CAS ID: 36322-90-4 The dosage is based on your medical condition and response to treatment. To reduce your risk of stomach bleeding and other side effects, take this medication at the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible time. Do not increase your dose, take it more often, or take it for a longer time than prescribed. If you are taking this drug "as needed" (not on a regular schedule), remember that pain medications work best if they are used as the first signs of pain occur. If you wait until the pain has worsened, the medication may not work as well. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (including

  What Is Feldene? Feldene (piroxicam) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) indicated for the relief of the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. What Are Side Effects of Feldene? Side effects of Feldene are: swelling, anorexia, abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, heartburn, upset stomach, stomach pain, elevated liver enzymes, bloating, gas, gross bleeding/perforation, heartburn, nausea, ulcers (gastric/duodenal), dizziness, headache, nervousness, skin itching or rash, blurred vision, ringing in your ears, Drugs Substances, or Supplements Interact with Feldene Feldene may interact with alcohol, antidepressants, blood thinners, lithium, methotrexate, diuretics (water pills), steroids, aspirin or other NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), or ACE inhibitors. Tell your doctor all medications and supplements you use.

  INTRODUCTION The mammary gland (breast) is a conical shape modified sweat gland present in the superficial fascia of the pectoral region. The mammary gland is found in both sexes. However, it remains rudimentary in male but becomes well developed in female at puberty.   LOCATION The breast is located in the superficial fascia of the pectoral region. A small extension from its superolateral part (axillary tail of Spence) however pierces the deep fascia and extends into the axilla. The aperture in the deep fascia through which axillary tail passes into the axilla is called foramen of Langer. The axillary tail is the site of high percentage of breast tumor. SHAPE It is hemispherical in shape LOCATION AND EXTENT Vertically, it extends from 2nd rib to 6th rib. Horizontally it extends from lateral border of the sternum to the mid-axillary area. DEEP RELATIONS The deep surface of the breast is related to the following structures in that order 1. The breast lies on the deep fascia

INTRODUCTION The appendix is a narrow blind-ended tube that is attached to the posteromedial end of the cecum (large intestine). It contains a large amount of lymphoid tissue but is not thought to have any vital functions in the human body. STRUCTURE AND RELATIONS The appendix originates from the posteromedial aspect of the cecum. It is supported by the mesoappendix, a fold of mesentery which suspends the appendix from the terminal ileum. The position of the free-end of the appendix is highly variable and can be categorised into seven main locations depending on its relationship to the ileum, caecum or pelvis. The most common position is retrocecal. They may also be remembered by their relationship to a clock face: Pre-ileal – anterior to the terminal ileum – 1 or 2 o’clock. Post-ileal – posterior to the terminal ileum – 1 or 2 o’clock. Sub-ileal – parallel with the terminal ileum – 3 o’clock. Pelvic – descending over the pelvic brim – 5 o’clock. Subcecal – below the cecum – 6 o’clo